The Effects Of Child Abuse On Children Essay - 2048 Words

According to the Children, Young persons and their Families Act (1989) abuse is defined as â€Å"A Child or Young Person who is being, or likely to be harmed (whether physically, emotionally, or sexually), ill-treatment, abuse, neglect or deprivation of any child or young person.† It is also important to understand that abuse may be intentional (physical abuse for example) or unintentional (for example mental abuse or neglect.) Child abuse has been on the increase in recent years and the numbers of children potentially being abused is significantly larger than generally expected. Creighton (2004) states that 570,000 referrals were made concerning child maltreatment and neglect to social service departments across England and Wales in the year 2002-03, surprisingly despite the introduction of legislation and safeguarding services designated to protect children, it is still a serious issue with 612,600 referrals made to the same services in 2011. DfE (2011) signs and symptoms of Abuse there are a large number of signs and symptoms that would be associated with the various types of abuse and identifying and assessing what is deemed as accidental is important when considering if a child is at risk. Abuse is heavily linked with the different parenting and behaviour styles such as attachment theory, in which Bowlby (1988) discusses the difference between secure and unsecure attachments. In relation to abuse and safeguarding, children who have developed unsecure attachments have moreShow MoreRelatedThe Effects Of Child Abuse On Children935 Words   |  4 PagesChild abuse has been an issue in America since the beginning of time, but lately there has gradually been an increase in reported incidents of abuse. There are several types of child abuse that are present in today’s society. The different types of abuse include physical, emotional and sexual abuse. Of the different maltreatment types, four-fifths (78.3%) of unique victims were neglected, 17.6 percent were physically abused, 9.2 percent were sexually abused, 8.1 percent were psychologically maltreatedRead MoreChild Abuse And Its Effects On Children Essay1489 Words   |  6 Pagesindividuals corrected. However, there are cases that have not been solved or not stopped by the law. Child abuse is common. Child abuse can be caused by a variety of reasons. Scientist have been studying and they have some ideas on what prompt people to harm children (Ian Hacking). They are trying to end child abuse, but there is so much they can do. Many children abuse incidents are not reported. Child abuse may have many causes as in way the abuser does it. One specific factor is the background of theRead MoreChild Abuse And Its Effects On Children913 Words   |  4 Pagesseveral types of abuse, there’s physical, emotional, verbal and several others abuses. But the abuse I would like to focus on is child abuse. Domestic violence towards children is important because there is a way to prevent it from happening. Typical parents and caregivers do not intend to abuse their children. Abuse is mainly directed toward the behaviors that are given off towards one another. Author David Gil defines child abuse as an oc currence where a caretaker injures a child, not by accidentRead MoreChild Abuse Is An Effect On Children1657 Words   |  7 PagesIn 2010 according to the census bureau there were 74,100,000 U.S children between the ages of 0-17 being abused and 3.3 million referrals. This effected on average 1-10 U.S families and children, there were more than 32,200,000 U.S families with children under the age of 18 according to the 2010 census bureau. From the 3.3 million hotline calls in 2010 there were less than 475,000 sustained cases (2010 NCANDS: 436,321 sustained +24,976 indicated = 461,297 total) resulting in about 15% of hotlineRead MoreChild Abuse And Its Effects On Children1317 Words   |  6 PagesChild abuse has long been an ongoing social problem; this abuse has been one of the repeatedly difficult accusations to prove in our criminal justice system. Child abuse causes many years of suffering for victims. Children abused suffer from chemical imbalances, behavioral issues and are at high risk for becoming abusers or being abused in adult relationships. This cycle of learned behavior and suffering will be a hopeless reoccurring problem unless the criminal justice system and protocols for abusersRead MoreChild Abuse And Its Effects On Children1488 Words   |  6 Pages â€Æ' In addressing child abuse we are confronted with a series of problems. On the one hand, there is a lack of the true extent of the phenomenon because no data are available and that the issue, often refers to the most intimate spaces of family life. Furthermore, cultural and historical traditions affect the way each society faces this problem. Finally, there are varying opinions as to its definition and classification, as well as the consequences of child abuse may have and its subsequent therapeuticRead MoreChild Abuse And Its Effects On Children1263 Words   |  6 Pages Child Abuse Child abuse is any behavior which, by action or omission, produces physical or psychological damage to a person less than 18 years, affecting the development of his personality. In homes, it is believed that the most effective way to educate children is using the abuse. This form of punishment it used as an instrument of correction and moral training strategy as it is the first and most persistent justification of damage and maltreated mothers parents inflict on their children. SocietyRead MoreChild Abuse And Its Effects On Children1160 Words   |  5 PagesMost parents and other caregivers do not intend to hurt their children, but abuse is defined by the effect on the child, not the motivation of the parents or caregiver. Tens of thousands of children each year are traumatized by physical, sexual, and emotional abusers or by caregivers who neglect them, making child abuse as common as it is shocking. Most of us can’t imagine what would make an adult use violence against a child, and the worse the behavior is, the more unimaginable it seems. ButRead MoreChild Abuse And Its Effects On Children1227 Words   |  5 Pagesreports of child abuse are made involving more than 6 million children. The United States has one of the worst records of child abuse losing 4-7 children a day to the abuse. Abuse is when any behavior or action that is used to scare, harm, threaten, control or intimidate another person. Child abuse is a behavior outside the norms of conduct and entails substantial risk of causing physical or emotional harm. There are four main types of child abuse; physical abuse, sexual abuse, emotional abuse, andRead MoreChild Abuse And Its Effects On Children1132 Words   |  5 PagesIntroduction Child abuse takes many different forms. Including physical, sexual, emotional, or neglect of a children by parents, guardians, or others responsible for a child s welfare. Regardless of the type of abuse, the child’s devolvement is greatly impacted. The child’s risk for emotional, behavioral, academic, social, and physical problems in life increase. According to the Child Maltreatment Report by the Children’s Bureau (1999) the most common form of child abuse in the United States is

Effects of Nationalism After French Revolution Free Essays

After the French Revolution and the Napoleonic Era, people were brought together by the French army marching through their country. During the nineteenth century nationalism became a great aspect of life. Both writer and artist works were greatly influenced by nationalistic ideals and brought people together. We will write a custom essay sample on Effects of Nationalism After French Revolution or any similar topic only for you Order Now Nationalism became a very popular thing after the Napoleonic Era, when people saw how the French carried themselves as a people of a nation. This is when other nations started to strive for links between their people. One major forerunner was language. People saw language as one way to unify as a nation, and create a brotherhood between its people. The whole idea of roots and back story also influenced the literature of the nineteenth century as well. Many writers works were influenced from the nineteenth century was influenced by Nationalistic ideals. One set of writers who showed the idea of nationalism were the Brothers Grimm in their Grimm’s Fairy Tales. Grimm’s Fairy Tales is a collection of German fairy tales all in one book. They used these collection of fairy tales to create a German identity, by saying these were the tales passed on from generation to generation in German culture. Another writer that shows nationalism is Aleksandr Pushkin in his work The Bronze Horseman. The Bronze Horseman tells the tale of Evgenii and how he ends up going mad and getting killed by the statue of Peter. This shows nationalism in the fact that in the introduction of the poem, he talks about the founding of St. Petersburg and how great Russia is. Artist also had many works that portrayed nationalistic ideals. One piece of art that without a doubt showed nationalism was La Liberte guidant le peuple by Eugene Delacroix. This painting depicts â€Å"Mother France† leading her people into battle during the French Revolution. It shows Mother France with torn clothes and a French flag above her head which show how she wanted to bring her people all under the French flag and join them together. Another painting that depicts nationalism is The Bard by John Martin. This painting shows a Welsh bard running from a massacre that had just happened in a town off in the background of the painting. This showed nationalism in the idea that no matter what the English would send upon the Welsh they would always stand strong as a people and never give in to the English repression. All these different works show different aspects of nationalism. The Brother Grimm with the Grimm’s Fairy Tales, showed German nationalism in the fact that it created German folklore for people to come around. Aleksandr Pushkin’s The Bronze Horseman showed nationalism in that it tells how great Russia is and no matter what happens it will forever keep its greatness. Eugene Delacroix’s painting La Liberte Guidant le people shows French nationalism in that it shows the French people all coming together under one flag to fight alongside Mother France and were willing to die for her. In The Bard by John Martin shows Welsh nationalism in that no matter what the English did to them they would never give in. In sum, nationalism became a major aspect of life in the nineteenth century. People came together and many new nations began to form in response to these new ideals of nationalism. Nationalism led to many great things, like the unification of Germany in 1871. How to cite Effects of Nationalism After French Revolution, Essay examples

Business Report on Ethical Dilemma of Driving †Free samples

Question: What is Business report on Ethical Dilemma of Driving? Answer: Introduction The company is in a rush to be first to market with a new product of self-driving electric cars, which having undergone various tests and simulations and passed, are deemed by the management to be ready for the market. However, according to the AI Consultant, there is still a little bit of work to be done form a technical and safety point of view to ensure the cars are fully ready for real life situations. This will entail creating some simulations for accident scenarios where life and death decisions have to be made by the car. This report gives insights into the situation, discussing the underlying ethical principles the company, and especially the AI intelligence is faced with, the various scenarios possible; a recommendation is made at the end of this report on what can be done given the scenarios ethical dilemma so that there is a win-win situation for all stakeholders. Ethical Dilemma facing the AI (Artificial Intelligence) Consultant The AI Consultant is in a unique situation with regards to ethics; indeed he faces a huge dilemma; on the one hand, the consultant wants to ensure he does his job and adheres to the industrys ethical principles and ensure the self-driving cars are safe for the users and other stakeholders, including pedestrians and other road users. Knowing that while the tests have been successful and the self-driving cars have been learning, the consultant still knows they are machines and the real world situation is very different from a test situation, this is a huge dilemma. On the other hand, the self-driving cars are a business and not an exercise in practice; it is therefore important that the company gets the cars to market first before competitors get ready for the market (Lin, 2013). The ethical dilemma, therefore, is What if something goes terribly wrong and the self-driving cars are unable to make the right decisions during emergencies or life and death situations? The consultant faces the dilemma that in the event of an accident situation where a choice must be made; there is an oncoming car full of children that is going to crash into it and could cause the bus to fall off a cliff; on another hand, the self-driving car is carrying a single elderly passenger, if it decides to swerve, it could fall of a cliff and injure or kill the passenger, while getting destroyed at the same time. This is a huge ethical and moral dilemma; there is also the possibility that the situation is not realistic and in any case, the cars have been tested and that would possibly be a doomsday scenario unlikely to ever happen. So if he passes the cars are fit for road use, he will be hoping nothing drastic happens, and if it does not, he will be vindicated. But if indeed there is an accident scenario and there are injuries and damages, or even fatalities, he will always feel guilty and may have to take full responsibility. Consequences for both AI Consultant and the car customers The consequences of the ethical dilemma could be immense; if nothing happens, then no problem, what you dont know will never hurt. However, in the event there is an accident; for instance, the self-driving car malfunctions or another driver causes it to make a decision that causes injury or death; it could be a legal tussle, especially for the AI consultant and the company, the consequences can be very profound and get himself charged with professional negligence. For the customers, they would also shoulder legal liability that their self-driving cars malfunctioned when they had been assured the cars were fully tested, even for emergency situations. They would probably pass the liability to the manufacturer, and would themselves suffer local and national ramifications for endangering lives or causing a fatality. While there are no laws banning self-driving cars, based on the principle of no crime without a law, this is where ethics come in (The Ethics of Autonomous Cars, 2013). The AI consultants Duty The field of AI has ethical guidelines that the consultant will have to adhere to, these include; Robots must never be designed solely for the purpose of harming or killing human beings The responsible agents are humans, not the robots as the robots are tools humans design to perform certain functions. Robots need to be designed in a manner in which their security and safety is assured Being artifacts, robots should never be designed so that they exploit vulnerabilities in users by evoking dependency or emotional responses; further, a robot should always be differentiated form a human The person legally responsible for a robot should always be possible to find (Norman, 2011). The AI consultant is charged with the responsibility of ensuring the self-driving cars are safe for road use, and this requires them to ensure this is achieved, including by creating crash simulations and where life and death decisions need to be made. The consultant is therefore duty bound to ensure the cars are tested and made to learn situations in which there could be accidents and how to respond. As the EPRSC (Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council) principles state, a human being must be responsible for a robot on the understanding that the robots are a tool. The consultant must therefore ensure the life and death situations are done to assure safety (Nyholm Smids, 2016). Ethical response to the Dilemma from the point of View of a caring person The moral caring person will first respond to the dilemma by stating that as the principles state, all procedures must be followed to the letter, and so, if the AI consultant wants simulations for life and death situations to be created and tested on the cars before they are released, then this must be done at whatever cost (Simon, 2017). The principles say that humans must be responsible for robots, therefore, the company and the AI consultant must remain responsible for the self-driving cars, including the possible accidents that may occur, and also to ensure that they remain safe to the users, owners, and other members of the public; because as humans have already taught alien intelligence moral lessons, this should be done to robots too (Rini, 2017). Building robots and self-driving cars is parenting, the robots, just like children must be given moral lessons and life compass. Relevant ACS Codes The ACS Code of Professional Conduct is a set of ethical codes that every professional member or affiliate of the ACM (Association for Computing machinery). The codes are supplemented by additional guidelines; the important codes are listed below; Public interest is to be placed above the interests of business, personal, or sectional interests To enhance the quality of life of those that your work affects Honesty in the presentation of skills, services, knowledge, and products Work diligently and competently to all stakeholders and that of staff and colleagues Enhancement of personal professional development Enhancing the integrity of ACS and the respect members have for each other (Australian Computer Society, 2014) For the self-driving cars case, code 1 and 3 apply; code 1 states that every professional must public interest above those of personal, business or other sections; so by passing the vehicles as safe without simulation and testing the cars response in life and death decision situations, the consultant will be breaking code 1. Code 3 has to do with honesty; passing the cars as safe, yet knowing that they have not been tested shows dishonesty chicanery unbecoming of a professional Ethical grounds for Defending the AI Consultant in passing the Electric vehicles Despite all the testing and simulation, the self-driving cars can never be achieve perfect safety; this is because there are other dynamics involved, such as involvement of other drivers, pedestrians, and natural weather phenomena that can result in unexpected performance. Even if the car was tested for many situations where life and death decisions must be made, how should it behave where death or injury is inevitable? The self-driving cars are not synonymous with autonomous driving and expecting this would be pushing the cars beyond their limit (Berman, 2015). A common situation is where suddenly, there is a group of eight children crossing the road that the self-driving car is sure to plough through; the other alternative is to hit an elderly beggar on the opposite kerb. What should the self-driving car do? It will eventually be involved in or cause accidents when inevitable (MIT Technology Review, 2015). Further, accidents cannot be predicted, that is why they are called accident s, and some situations chance of occurrence in real life, even for human drivers are next to remote (Lin, Robot Cars And Fake Ethical Dilemmas, 2017); the responses to crashes can be updated as they happen (if they happen), so the consultant would be fully justified if he passed the cars as safe for real life use. Recommendation to overcome the Dilemma It is not possible to predict every accident situation and simulate it, there are just too many variables, so the best approach would be to be adjusting car behavior and developing algorithms based on real life situations. The other solution is to use a video game approach where even as the self-driving cars drive around, in the event they have a decision dilemma, it can ring technical support where human beings can take control, using on board cameras and override the auto-pilot and make a decision, such as emergency braking or choosing what to do. References The Ethics of Autonomous Cars. (2013, October 08). Retrieved May 05, 2017, from The Atlantic: https://www.theatlantic.com/technology/archive/2013/10/the-ethics-of-autonomous-cars/280360/ Australian Computer Society. (2014, April). ACS Code of Professional Conduct. Retrieved May 05, 2017, from Australian Computer Society: https://www.acs.org.au/content/dam/acs/acs-documents/ACS%20Code-of-Professional-Conduct_v2.1.pdf Berman, B. (2015, Oct 21). Drivers Push Teslas Autopilot Beyond Its Abilities. Retrieved May 05, 2017, from Technology Review: https://www.technologyreview.com/s/542651/drivers-push-teslas-autopilot-beyond-its-abilities/ Lin, P. (2013). The ethical dilemma of self-driving cars. Retrieved May 05, 2017, from Ted Ed: https://ed.ted.com/lessons/the-ethical-dilemma-of-self-driving-cars-patrick-lin Lin, P. (2017, Apr 03). Robot Cars And Fake Ethical Dilemmas. Retrieved may 05, 2017, from Forbes: https://www.forbes.com/sites/patricklin/2017/04/03/robot-cars-and-fake-ethical-dilemmas/#13a2660413a2 MIT Technology Review. (2015, Oct 22). Why Self-Driving Cars Must Be Programmed to Kill. Retrieved May 05, 2017, from technology Review: https://www.technologyreview.com/s/542626/why-self-driving-cars-must-be-programmed-to-kill/ Norman, J. (2011). Ethical principles for Designers, Builders and Users of Robots. Retrieved Apr 05, 2017, from History of Information: https://www.historyofinformation.com/expanded.php?id=4109 Nyholm, S., Smids, J. (2016). The Ethics of Accident-Algorithms for Self-Driving Cars: an Applied Trolley Problem? Ethical Theory and Moral Practice, 12751289. Rini, R. (2017, Feb 22). Raising good robots. Retrieved May 04, 2017, from AEON: https://aeon.co/essays/creating-robots-capable-of-moral-reasoning-is-like-parenting Simon, M. (2017, March 13). To make us All Safer, Robocars Will Sometimes Have to Kill. Retrieved may 05, 2017, from Wired: https://www.wired.com/2017/03/make-us-safer-robocars-will-sometimes-kill/

TOK Essay Summary Example For Students

TOK Essay Summary Symptomatic for how human beings convince themselves of the truth, the man resorts to the ultimate authority: himself. What he sees must be true. Unfortunately that source of knowledge is erroneous. To avoid the well-known limitations of our perception, illustrated by optical illusions, other factors influence ones senses, and their ability to tell the truth. Although such things as the Sixth sense and other intuitions have been argued to exist, the term, senses, has a physical root. As mentioned, emotions tend to color our perception of the world. Like alcohol, love affects the physical aspects of humans. We will write a custom essay on TOK Summary specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now Besides serotonin,13 other hormones have increased activity in the brains perceptive judgment centers. In context to truth, it shows interpretations of observations can be distorted by perspective and other factors, such as emotions. Synthesis of information from any source without this tool of knowing is hard. How would it be possible to reason if necessary observations of premises cannot be made; to hear authoritative accounts; have emotional sensations without touch? It is relevant to ask if it is at all possible to know the truth; when no ways of knowing are impenetrable to error. Before jumping to conclusions, one could attempt to limit the spectrum where truth occurs: Truth is limited according to some given parameters. 14 These truth factors, however, better eliminate false statements than point out true ones: They filtrate less qualified guesses from better. The pragmatic theory is a down to earth approach where truth extends from reality: if something works in reality, then its true. This goes with the method of science: A hypothesis is established and tested under observation, thus mounting in a conclusive acceptance/rejection of the hypothesis validity. The theory gets support from such examples, since it is true that it works in reality. Nevertheless, its basis is inductive reasoning and perception, which are no guarantees of the truth. Peter could test the hypothesis that his wife committed adultery. In favor of the proposition, it coheres/corresponds to observations from reality: Phone-calls, noises, etc. Truth, however, doesnt follow logically. To claim so is invalid because the secret calls could be related to something else. 15 Truth is transparent. Knowledge isnt solely justified by factuality, because such is not entirely justifiable. 16 The gap between certainty and the hardly quantifiable reliability of a knowledge claim has to be compensated for by conviction/faith. 17 Peter, therefore, is left with different knowledge claims to be justified/rejected, and with the task of defining the truth-spectrum. In context to the prescribed question, the likeliness that a tool of knowing will deliver one the truth is in the end dependent on ones belief. It would be rather nice to conclude that the most likely way of knowing the truth is through perception, since people tend to put greater faith in own observations and seeing is believing, but tend is not finite. Truth is defined individually be assigning a belief to a truth subject. Hence the most likely way of knowing the truth is the one in which the belief is the greatest: most often that is perception. Even with untrue dogmatism, beliefs are flexible in the long- run, so one should keep challenging ways of knowing to move closer to truth. By the way, Peters wife was innocent. 1 This is similar to that implied by the prescribed question. 2 Socrates once said that it is in human nature to desire the truth. 3 This will be discussed later. 4 In fact, emotions can distort the other ways of acquiring knowledge. 5 In this book, Big Brother deliberately appeals to peoples emotions, in order to make them behave in a certain way. This is commonly known as propaganda. 6A psychologist would probably agree that we are slow to confront erroneous intuitions and get rid of them. 7 Reasoning can either be of an inductive or deductive nature. 8 I was once told this little story by my grandfather, a farmer, which is an excellent example in support of this idea: I had a herd of chickens cute little animals which had come to rely on that I would feed them at a certain time each day. .ua49b5b16407df962a19aef0f8ed8ca88 , .ua49b5b16407df962a19aef0f8ed8ca88 .postImageUrl , .ua49b5b16407df962a19aef0f8ed8ca88 .centered-text-area { min-height: 80px; position: relative; } .ua49b5b16407df962a19aef0f8ed8ca88 , .ua49b5b16407df962a19aef0f8ed8ca88:hover , .ua49b5b16407df962a19aef0f8ed8ca88:visited , .ua49b5b16407df962a19aef0f8ed8ca88:active { border:0!important; } .ua49b5b16407df962a19aef0f8ed8ca88 .clearfix:after { content: ""; display: table; clear: both; } .ua49b5b16407df962a19aef0f8ed8ca88 { display: block; transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; width: 100%; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #95A5A6; } .ua49b5b16407df962a19aef0f8ed8ca88:active , .ua49b5b16407df962a19aef0f8ed8ca88:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #2C3E50; } .ua49b5b16407df962a19aef0f8ed8ca88 .centered-text-area { width: 100%; position: relative ; } .ua49b5b16407df962a19aef0f8ed8ca88 .ctaText { border-bottom: 0 solid #fff; color: #2980B9; font-size: 16px; font-weight: bold; margin: 0; padding: 0; text-decoration: underline; } .ua49b5b16407df962a19aef0f8ed8ca88 .postTitle { color: #FFFFFF; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 600; margin: 0; padding: 0; width: 100%; } .ua49b5b16407df962a19aef0f8ed8ca88 .ctaButton { background-color: #7F8C8D!important; color: #2980B9; border: none; border-radius: 3px; box-shadow: none; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 26px; moz-border-radius: 3px; text-align: center; text-decoration: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-height: 80px; background: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/plugins/intelly-related-posts/assets/images/simple-arrow.png)no-repeat; position: absolute; right: 0; top: 0; } .ua49b5b16407df962a19aef0f8ed8ca88:hover .ctaButton { background-color: #34495E!important; } .ua49b5b16407df962a19aef0f8ed8ca88 .centered-text { display: table; height: 80px; padding-left : 18px; top: 0; } .ua49b5b16407df962a19aef0f8ed8ca88 .ua49b5b16407df962a19aef0f8ed8ca88-content { display: table-cell; margin: 0; padding: 0; padding-right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-align: middle; width: 100%; } .ua49b5b16407df962a19aef0f8ed8ca88:after { content: ""; display: block; clear: both; } READ: TOk essay may 2009 topic 3Foolish of them to think that certain: Because one day I came with an axe instead of feed. Dont blind yourself. 9 Whether it is right or not to follow dogmatism is another question that arises, when knowledge reliance goes to such an extreme. 10 This book was written by the Nigerian author, C. Achebe. It is about how inflexible beliefs can bring about the downfall of man. Another knowledge issue. 11 Incas, Moslems, Buddhists, Christians, etc. 12Archaeologist exposed as fraud. BBC News, 2000. 2 Jan. 2008 ;http://news. bbc.co. uk/1/hi/world/asia-pacific/1008051. stm;. 13 Serotonin is often used in medicine as an anti-depressant hormone: It makes people look more optimistic at the world. Too much of it, however, is highly toxic same with emotions and perception. 14 Those parameters are summarized in Richard van de Lagemaats TOK for the IB Diploma (Lagemaat, Richard. Theory of Knowledge for the IB Diploma. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2005. ). They are divided into three theories: The correspondence-, coherence-, and pragmatic theory. 15 From what I have heard, she is planning a surprise birthday party for the man, who is turning 40. 16 At least as far as human intelligence can grasp. Many things are beyond human understanding, which, for me, invokes humility faced with the immense everything. 17 In the end truth is formed by beliefs.

Callus Essays - Cell Culture, Biotechnology, Cell Biology, Callus

Callus Essays - Cell Culture, Biotechnology, Cell Biology, Callus Callus is defined as an unorganized tissue mass growing on solid substrate. Callus forms naturally on plants in response to wounding, infestations, or at graft unions (Bottino, 1981). Since extensive callus formation can be induced by elevated hormone levels, tissue culture media designed to produce callus contain pharmacological additions of cytokinins and auxins. Callus formation is central to many investigative and applied tissue culture procedures. Callus can be multiplied and later used to clone numerous whole plants. Additionally, various genetic engineering protocols employ callus initiation procedures after DNA has been inserted into cells; transgenic plants are then regenerated from transformed callus. In other protocols callus is generated for use in biotechnological procedures such as the formation of suspension cultures from which valuable plant products can be harvested. Callus Formation Explants from several parts of large intact plants can be used to form callus. The most successful explants are often young tissues of one or a few cell types. Pith cells of young stem are usually a good source of explant material. Initially, callus cells proliferate without differentiating, but eventually differentiation occurs within the tissue mass. Actively dividing cells are those uppermost and peripheral in the callus. The extent of overall differentiation usually depends on the hormone balance of the support medium and the physiological state of the tissue. Callus Multiplication Actively growing callus can be initiated on culture media with an even physiological balance of cytokinin and auxin (Tobacco Callus Initiation Medium; Appendix E). After callus biomass increases two to four times (after 24 weeks of growth), callus can be divided and placed on fresh Tobacco Callus Initiation Medium for callus multiplication. Multiplication procedures can be repeated several times (up to eight sequential transfers) before gross chromosome instability (or contamination) occurs. Differentiation and Plant Regeneration Multiplied callus can be stimulated to form shoots by increasing the cytokinin concentration and decreasing auxin content of culture media (Tobacco Shoot Development Medium; Appendix E). Shoot masses can be cut apart and transferred to rooting medium. Once rooted, regenerated plants can be acclimatized to natural rather than "in vitro" growth conditions. Regenerated plants are especially valuable if the parent plant was itself unique or if the plants were genetically engineered. If, for example, multiplied callus was first used to form suspension cultures on which genetic engineering or cell selection was accomplished, resultant regenerated plants via tissue culture could possess special traits or capabilities. Materials and Methods Callus Formation (Bottino, 1981) 1. Obtain a 5-cm section of tobacco stem. 2. Cut off all leaves. 3. Immerse it in a beaker of 95% ethanol for 15 seconds. 4. In the laminar flow hood, expose the pith by cutting away epidermis, cortex, and vascular tissue with a sterile scalpel (Figure 9.5). 5. Slice the exposed length of pith into a sterile petri dish. 6. Cover the dish to keep pith sterile. 7. Aseptically slice 5-mm cross-sections of pith. 8. Transfer one cross-section to each plate of Tobacco Callus Initiation Medium. 9. Cover the dishes, seal with parafilm, and place in an incubator at 2225C. Callus Multiplication 1. Obtain a plate of tobacco callus. 2. Aseptically divide the callus into smaller pieces. 3. Transfer divided callus pieces to fresh Tobacco Callus Initiation Medium. When cultured in an appropriate medium having auxin and cytokinin, explants will give rise to an unorganized, growing and dividing mass of cells called callus. Callus cultures are initiated from a small part of an organ or tissue segment called the explants on a growth supporting solidified nutrient medium under sterile conditions. Any part of the plant organ or tissues may be used as the explants. At the time of callus formation, there is some degree of dedifferentiation happens both in morphology and metabolism. One of the major consequences of this dedifferentiation is that most plant cultures lose their ability to perform photosynthesis. The necessitates of the addition of other components such as carbon and vitamins source to the culture media, in addition to the unusual mineral nutrients. Morphology of callus: Callus varies considerably in appearance and texture, ranging from hard nodular cell masses to friable soft ones. They maybe white or creamish, orange, green either in whole or part as a result of chloroplast development. The shape of individual cells within the callus mass ranges from the near spherical or markedly elongated. A typical unorganized plant callus initiated from a new explants or piece of previously initiated calli has three stages of development. The induction of cell division. A period of active cell division during which

Amino Acid Phenylalanine Applications

Amino Acid Phenylalanine Applications Phenylalanine is an electrically neutral amino acid with the chemical formula C9H11NO2. This essential amino acid is one of 20 building blocks of proteins in humans. Due to its benzyl group, phenylalanine is hydrophobic. Since its discovery in 1879, phenylalanine has been studied for its antidepressant and analgesic effects. The synthesis of phenylalanine is complex and does not occur in mammals. The metabolism of phenylalanine produces various hormones and neurotransmitters. Genetic mutations can result in several disorders relating to the metabolism of phenylalanine. This report will identify the biological importance of the amino acid phenylalanine by examining its history, uses, metabolic pathways and disorders, and biological synthesis. Discovery and History Schulze and Barbieri discovered phenylalanine in plant sprouts in 1879. The researchers extracted phenylalanine copper salts from Lupinus Zuteus seedlings, which were refined to isolate phenylalanine (â€Å"L-Phenylalanine ,† n.d.). Before 1940, research on phenylalanine did not describe its biological metabolism during the formation of tyrosine. Womack and Rose showed the essentiality and dependence on phenylalanine in the diet of rats. Dietary intake of tyrosine in the rats was deemed nonessential. Evidence from the trials proved that phenylalanine is the precursor of tyrosine, but phenylalanine cannot be synthesized from tyrosine (Matthews, 2007). The discovery of the codon of phenylalanine was a significant breakthrough in determining the relationship between messenger ribonucleic acid and protein production. In 1961, Matthaei and Nirenberg repeatedly inserted uracil nucleotides into E. coli bacteria, producing long phenylalanine peptide chains. The researchers deduced that the codons for phenylalanine include UUU and UUC (â€Å"Phenylalanine,† 2009). In the 1960s, a more efficient method of phenylalanine production resulted in the large-scale fermentation of phenylalanine. This metho d was incorporated into the nutritional supplement and drug industries (â€Å"L-Phenylalanine,† n.d.). Phenylalanine supplements are currently used to treat depression, chronic pain, Parkinson’s disease, and vitiligo (â€Å"Supplements with Similar,† n.d.). Since 1981, aspartame has been used as a food additive in Canada. Aspartame degrades through metabolism and digestion to form phenylalanine. Phenylalanine has recently been under intense scrutiny due to its elevated levels in aspartame, and the occurrence of phenylketonuria (â€Å"Aspartame,† 2005). Importance and Uses Phenylalanine is an essential amino acid in the diet of humans. Mammals cannot form benzene rings, therefore limiting the biosynthesis of phenylalanine in humans (Kretchmer & Etzwiler, 1958). Phenylalanine is important in amino acid metabolism and the synthesis of structural proteins in tissue. The concentrations of phenylalanine control the amounts of other electrically neutral amino ac ids in the brain (Humphries, Pretorius, & Naude, 2007). Phenylalanine is an essential building block for many hormones and neurotransmitters. Phenylalanine is converted into DOPA, dopamine, epinephrine, norepinephrine, phenylethylamine, and phenylacetate (Humphries et al., 2007). Depression can be treated with phenylalanine medication. Treatment of oral and intravenous application of deprenyl plus phenylalanine has significant antidepressant action (Birkmayer, Linauer, Riederer, & Knoll, 1984). While many natural health and nutritional companies claim D-phenylalanine is effective in chronic pain reduction, clinical studies have determined no significant analgesic results (Walsh, Ramamurthy, Schoenfeld, & Hoffman, 1986). L-DOPA, a molecule composed of a phenylalanine base, has been used as a symptom repressor in Parkinson’s disease for over fifty years. In 1967, Cortzias showed in his report on Parkinson’s disease, that L-DOPA has a noteworthy rehabilitative quality in reducing rigidity and akinesia (McDowell & Lee, 1970). The major problem of Parkinson’s disease is lowered levels of dopamine in the brain due to trauma or dysfunction of dopaminergic cells. Administered L-DOPA is able to cross the blood-brain barrier for conversion into dopamine, thus increasing dopamine levels (â€Å"Oxidation of L-dopa,† 2002). Current research suggests that phenylalanine administration along with ultraviolet radiation aids in vitiligo patients. The phenylalanine absorbs the radiation resulting in slight pigmentation changes in the skin (â€Å"Supplements with Similar,† n.d.).

Water shortages at Jordan Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Water shortages at Jordan - Essay Example Almost 70% of all water is used for agricultural purposes and less than 30% is consumed by people (Jordans Water Shortage, 1998). Overall, this issue requires immediate response not to get worse. This problem requires complex approach and collaboration of people, government and even countries that border with Jordan. First of all, the government develops the water management model to make sure that the supply of water is growing and the demand is decreasing. Second, strategic relationships with Israel and Syria make sure that Jordan is backed up by its neighboring countries. Moreover, investments into existing water supply infrastructure strengthen the position of the country and avoid exploring new resources of water which is quite costly for the country. Finally, the country maintains clear data about water consumption on its territories in order to see how the above-mentioned activities influence on the situation with water shortage in Jordan. Government, local people and activists seem to be involved in the issue; they control their water consumption and support governmental